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The European Union Qualification Directive: The Creation of a Subsidiary Protection Regime
* BA (Hons) LLB (Hons) (Syd) DPhil (Oxon); Lecturer in Law, University of Sydney. The law is current as at May 2005
The European Union Qualification Directive is the first supranational instrument to seek to harmonize complementary protection (termed ‘subsidiary protection’ in the EU). Though it has shifted complementary protection beyond the realm of ad hoc domestic practices to a codified regime, it entrenches a protection hierarchy that unjustifiably differentiates between the rights and status accorded to Convention refugees vis-à-vis beneficiaries of subsidiary protection. This article traces the development of the Qualification Directive by examining preparatory documents and drafting records. It discusses changes to the categories of persons granted subsidiary protection as well as to the substantive rights attaching to that status. In particular, it criticizes the narrowing-down of originally-proposed categories of persons eligible for subsidiary protection, arguing that omitting to provide for known groups of extra-Convention refugees does not eliminate them, but simply creates new categories of unprotected persons. It also highlights the absence of any international legal basis on which to base distinctions between the rights granted to Convention refugees vis-à-vis beneficiaries of subsidiary protection. It concludes that the Qualification Directive represents a regional, political manifestation of the broader legal concept of complementary protection, and as such does not provide a model for emulation at the international level.
1 Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 Apr. 2004 on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection and the Content of the Protection Granted [2004] OJ L304/12.
2 Parliamentary Assembly (PA) Recommendation 773 (1976) on the Situation of De Facto Refugees; PA Recommendation 817 (1977) on Certain Aspects of the Right to Asylum; PA Recommendation 1016 (1985) on Living and Working Conditions of Refugees and Asylum Seekers; Committee of Ministers (CM) Recommendation No R (84) 1 on the Protection of Persons Satisfying the Criteria in the Geneva Convention Who Are Not Formally Recognised as Refugees; PA Recommendation 1088 (1988) on the Right to Territorial Asylum; Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Right of Asylum SEC 91 1857 final (11 Oct. 1991); PA Recommendation 1236 (1994) on the Right of Asylum; PA Recommendation 1237 (1994) on the Situation of Asylum-Seekers Whose Asylum Applications Have Been Rejected; Council Resolution of 14 Oct. 1996 laying down the Priorities for Cooperation in the Field of Justice and Home Affairs for the period from 1 July 1996 to 30 June 1998 (96/C 319/01); PA Recommendation 1327 (1997) on the Protection and Reinforcement of the Human Rights of Refugees and Asylum-Seekers in Europe; CM Recommendation R (98) 13 on the Right of Rejected Asylum Seekers to an Effective Remedy against Decisions on Expulsion in the Context of Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights; PA Recommendation 1440 (2000) on Restrictions on Asylum in the Member States of the Council of Europe and the EU; CM Recommendation R (2001) 18 on Subsidiary Protection; PA Recommendation 1525 (2001) on the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Geneva Convention.
3 2579th Council Meeting JHA (Luxembourg 29 Apr. 2004) 8694/04 (Presse 123) I. Ironically, the Directive does not apply to Denmark, in accordance with articles 1 and 2 of the Protocol on the Position of Denmark annexed to the Treaty on European Union [2002] OJ C325/5 and the Treaty establishing the European Community [2002] OJ C325/33: Directive recital 40. For Danish law: KU Kjær ‘The Abolition of the Danish de facto Concept’ (2003) 15 IJRL 254.
4 Note from the Danish Delegation to Migration and Asylum Working Parties ‘Subsidiary Protection’ 6764/97 ASIM 52 (17 Mar. 1997).
5 Note from the Presidency to Asylum/Migration Working Group ‘Implications of Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights for the Expulsion of Illegally Resident Third Country Nationals’ 7779/97 ASIM 89 (28 Apr. 1997).
6 ‘Study on the International Instruments Relevant to Subsidiary Protection’ 10175/98 ASIM 178 (13 July 1998). For an updated overview of Member States' practices: Note from General Secretariat of the Council to Asylum Working Party ‘Compilation of Replies to Questionnaire on Complementary Forms of Protection’ 8378/01 ASILE 27 (3 May 2001); ECRE ‘European Asylum Systems: Legal and Social Conditions for Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Western Europe’ (2003) (13 June 2004).
7 Note from Presidency to Asylum Working Party ‘Subsidiary Protection’ 6246/99 ASILE 7 (23 Feb. 1999) [3], referring to 10811/98 ASIM 193 ASILE 9 MIGR 13 (5 Aug. 1998).
8 The original meaning of temporary protection was protection provided by a country of first asylum while resettlement was awaited.
9 Presidency Note to Strategic Committee on Immigration, Frontiers and Asylum 5293/03 ASILE 3 (20 Jan. 2003) 4.
10 For legislation details: D Bouteillet-Paquet ‘Subsidiary Protection: Progress or Set-Back of Asylum Law in Europe? A Critical Analysis of the Legislation of the Member States of the European Union’ in D Bouteillet-Paquet (ed) Subsidiary Protection of Refugees in the European Union: Complementing the Geneva Convention? (Bruylant Brussels 2002) 226 n37.
11 Act No 15/98 of 16 Mar. 1998 art 8(1).
12 Note from Presidency to Asylum Working Party (n7) [4].
13 Note from Swedish, Dutch and Finnish Delegations ‘Subsidiary Protection’ 12063/01 ASILE 47 (20 Sept. 2001) 3. Comments based on ‘Study on the International Instruments Relevant to Subsidiary Protection’ (n6).
14 Note from Presidency to Asylum Working Party ‘Discussion Paper on Subsidiary Protection’ 13167/99 ASILE 41 (19 Nov. 1999) 2.
15 Note from Swedish and others (n13) 5.
16 Note from Presidency (n14) 3.
17 Council of the EU Outcome of Proceedings of CIREA Meeting with Representatives of the Courts and Other Review Bodies Dealing with Asylum on 28 Nov. 2001 ‘Summary of Discussions’ Doc 5585/02 CIREA 7 (Brussels 22 Mar. 2002) 4.
18 ‘Explanatory Memorandum’ in Commission of the European Communities Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection COM (2001) 510 final (12 Sept. 2001) 5. Note that it was drafted prior to 1 May 2004 enlargement of the EU and hence relied on the State practice of the 15 Member States at that time.
19 T Spijkerboer ‘Subsidiarity in Asylum Law: The Personal Scope of International Protection’ in Bouteillet-Paquet (ed) (n10) 39.
20 During discussions in the EU, Commission Services described subsidiary protection as an asylum issue that was ‘more of a political nature’: Council of the EU Note from Commission Services ‘Horizontal Issues in the Asylum Proposals’ 13636/01 ASILE 53 (9 Nov. 2001) 2; see also K Hailbronner ‘Principles of International Law regarding the Concept of Subsidiary Protection’ in Bouteillet-Paquet (ed) (n10) 7.
21 H Storey and others ‘Complementary Protection: Should There Be a Common Approach to Providing Protection to Persons Who Are Not Covered by the 1951 Geneva Convention?’ (Joint ILPA/IARLJ Symposium 6 Dec. 1999) (copy with author) 3.
23 Communication from the Commission (n2) [25]; ECRE ‘The Need for a Supplementary Refugee Definition’ (Apr. 1993) 4.
24 Informal JHA Council Meeting in Copenhagen ‘Discussion Paper concerning Recognition Rates on Convention Refugees and Persons in Need of Protection in Member States and (the Road towards) a Common Understanding of International Protection’ (13 Sept. 2002) <www.eu2002.dk/ewebeditpro2/upload/OW.StaticContent/636/Common%20refugee%20def.eng.pdf> (21 Oct. 2002) 2.
25 Committee on Civil Liberties and Internal Affairs ‘Report on the Harmonisation of Forms of Protection Complementing Refugee Status in the European Union’ PE 228.552/fin (26 Nov. 1998) 7.
26 UNHCR's Observations on the European Commission's Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection' 14109/01 ASILE 54 (16 Nov. 2001) [4].
27 Note from Presidency to Permanent Representatives Committee/Council ‘Report on Proceedings in the Council’s Other Configurations' 8509/04 POLGEN 19 (20 Apr. 2004) 3.
28 Opinion of the Economic and Social Committee on the ‘Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third-Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection’ (COM(2001) 510 final — 2001/0207 (CNS)) (2002/C 221/11) OJ C221/43 (17 Sept. 2002) (Brussels 29 May 2002) [1.9].
30 11356/02 ASILE 40 (6 Sept. 2002), building on definition of 10596/02 ASILE 36 (9 July 2002). For identity of delegation: 12199/02 ASILE 45 (25 Sept. 2002).
31 7882/02 ASILE 20 (24 Apr. 2002); 9038/02 ASILE 25 (17 June 2002); 12199/02 ASILE 45 (n30). At first they wanted a specific reference to article 33 of the Convention; later they urged for internal cross-referencing.
32 European Parliament ‘Report on the Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection’ (8 Oct. 2002) Final A5-0333/2002, PE 319.971, Amendments 6, 19, 37.
34 Amended Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards on Procedures in Member States for Granting and Withdrawing Refugee Status 8771/04 ASILE 33 (30 Apr. 2004).
35 See H Storey ‘The New EU Directive — An Evaluation’ (paper presented at International Association of Refugee Law Judges European Chapter Conference, Dublin May 2002) 7.
36 European Parliament ‘Amendments 52-176’ PE 310.971/52-176 (14 June 2002) Amendment 52 (Christian Ulrik von Boetticher) 2.
37 Amnesty International EU Office ‘Amnesty International’s Concerns regarding Amendments to the Draft Report on the Proposal for a Council Directive on a [sic] Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons who Otherwise Need International Protection (PE 310.971/52-176)' (12 Sept. 2002) <www.amnesty-eu.org> (21 Oct. 2002).
38 7944/04 ASILE 21 (31 Mar. 2004) art 2(e). It was originally art 5, but was moved to the definitions section in art 2 by 11356/02 ASILE 40 (n30).
39 Based on TEC (n3) art 63 and Protocol to the TEC on Asylum for Nationals of Member States of the EU (Protocol No 29).
40 UNHCR's Observations (n26) [11]; Amnesty International EU Office ‘Amnesty International's Comments on the Commission's Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country National [sic] and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Are Otherwise in Need of International Protection, COM (2001) 510 final’ (2 Oct. 2002) <www.amnesty-eu.org> (21 Oct. 2002) 2; European Parliament (n32) 53; House of Lords Select Committee on the EU Defining Refugee Status and Those in Need of International Protection (The Stationery Office London 2002) [54]. Although not formally a party to the negotiations, UNHCR maintained a close interest in the development of the Directive since it goes to the heart of its own mandate.
41 House of Lords (n40) [54]. See also UNHCR's comments there at [52]. Although the Convention and human rights treaties would still apply to EU citizens, their resultant legal status would be uncertain. Additionally, the argument that EU citizens may in any case move freely within the EU does not justify the breach of international law in the Directive, nor does such freedom of movement necessarily guarantee an equivalent level of rights as provided for in the Directive, especially for citizens of the 10 new Member States.
42 House of Lords (n40) [50] (Mr Hardwick, Refugee Council).
43 10596/02 ASILE 36 (n30) art 5(2) (emphasis added).
45 12199/02 ASILE 45 (n30) 3 fn 3.
47 E Feller ‘Statement by Ms Erika Feller, Director, Department of International Protection, UNHCR’ (SCIFA Brussels 6 Nov. 2002) 3. See also UNHCR Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees UN Doc HCR/IP/4/Eng/REV.1 (2nd edn Geneva 1992) [55]. This element is underestimated in Hathaway's analysis of the well-founded fear standard: JC Hathaway The Law of Refugee Status (Butterworths Toronto 1991) 69. It is reminiscent of remarks made during the drafting of the 1951 Convention, when the Israeli delegate explained that applying objective criteria in certain cases would result in injustice, such as where persons' ‘horrifying memories ... made it impossible for them to consider returning’: Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems (AHC) ‘Summary Record of the 18th Meeting’ (31 Jan. 1950) E/AC.32/SR.18 (8 Feb. 1950) [13] (Israel).
48 Hathaway (n47) 69, citing A Grahl-Madsen The Status of Refugees in International Law (AW Sijthoff Leyden 1966) 174.
49 Feller (n47) 3 (emphasis added).
50 Brückman's case App No 6242/73 in Stocktaking on the European Convention on Human Rights: The First Thirty Years, 1954–1984 (1984) 152–54, cited in T Einarsen ‘The European Convention on Human Rights and the Notion of an Implied Right to De Facto Asylum’ (1990) 2 IJRL 361, 374.
51 Council of the EU Presidency Note to Strategic Committee on Immigration, Frontiers and Asylum on 25 Sept. 2002 Doc 12148/02 ASILE 43 (20 Sept. 2002) 5. The Netherlands supported Sweden's argument that wording from decisions of the Torture Committee should be taken into account to avoid different rulings from different courts of bodies concerning similar situations: 12199/02 ASILE 45 (n30) 3 fn 3.
52 See e.g., EA v. Switzerland Comm No 28/1995 (10 Nov. 1997) UN Doc CAT/C/19/D/28/1995 [11.5]; X, Y and Z v. Sweden Comm No 61/1996 (6 May 1998) UN Doc CAT/C/20/D/61/1996 [11.5]; IAO v. Sweden Comm No 65/1997 (6 May 1998) UN Doc CAT/C/20/D/65/1997 [14.5]; KN v. Switzerland Comm No 94/1997 (19 May 1998) UN Doc CAT/C/20/D/94/1997 [10.5]; ALN v. Switzerland Comm No 90/1997 (19 May 1998) UN Doc CAT/C/20/D/90/1997 [8.7]; JUA v. Switzerland Comm No 100/1997 (10 Nov. 1998) UN Doc CAT/C/21/D/100/1997 [6.6]; SMR and MMR v. Sweden Comm No 103/1998 (5 May 1999) UN Doc CAT/C/22/D/103/1998 [9.7]; MBB v. Sweden Comm No 104/1998 (5 May 1999) UN Doc CAT/C/22/D/104/1998 [6.8]; KT v. Switzerland Comm No 118/1998 (19 Nov. 1999) UN Doc CAT/C/23/D/118/1998 [6.5]; NM v. Switzerland Comm No 116/1998 (9 May 2000) UN Doc CAT/C/24/D/116/1998 [6.7]; SC v. Denmark Comm No 143/1999 (10 May 2000) UN Doc CAT/C/24/D/143/1999 [6.6]; HAD v. Switzerland Comm No 126/1999 (10 May 2000) UN Doc CAT/C/24/D/126/1999 [4.10]; US v. Finland Comm No 197/2002 (1 May 2003) UN Doc CAT/C/30/D/197/2002 [7.8].
53 EA v. Switzerland (n. 52) [11.3].
54 Report of the Committee against Torture UN GAOR 53rd Session Supp No 44 UN Doc A/53/44 (1998) Annex IX.
56 Report of the Committee against Torture (n54) Annex IX.
57 Aemei v. Switzerland Comm No 34/1995 (9 May 1997) UN Doc CAT/C/18/D/34/1995 [9.5].
59 12199/02 ASILE 45 (n30) 3 fn 3.
60 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 Jan. 1980) 1155 UNTS 331 art 27.
61 Human Rights Committee (HRC) ‘General Comment 31 on Article 2 of the Covenant: The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant’ CCPR/C/74/CRP.4/Rev.6 (21 Apr. 2004) [4] [unedited version].
63 UNHCR's Observations (n26) [42].
65 UNHCR World News ‘EU: Ministers Close to Agreement on Definition of Refugee Directive’ (13 Sept. 2002) <www.unhcr.ch> (6 Sept. 2003).
66 Explanatory Memorandum (n18) 13.
67 Explanatory Memorandum (n18) 13.
68 GS Goodwin-Gill and A Hurwitz ‘Memorandum’ in Minutes of Evidence Taken before the EU Committee (Sub-Committee E) (10 Apr. 2002) [6]–[8], in House of Lords (n40) Oral Evidence 1–2.
69 View of the Minister of State at the Home Office (Angela Eagle) in House of Lords (n40) [99].
70 House of Commons Select Committee on European Scrutiny Fourth Report of Session 2002–03 (The Stationery Office London 6 Jan. 2003) <www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmselect/cmeuleg/63-iv/63.pdf> [6.25].
71 UNHCR ‘Some Additional Observations and Recommendations on the European Commission "Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection" COM (2001) 510 final, 2001/0207 (CNS) of 12 Sept. 2001’ (Geneva July 2002) 4.
73 12199/02 ASILE 45 (n30) 3 fn 4.
74 12620/02 ASILE 54 (23 Oct. 2002) arts 2(e), 15 and 13648/02 ASILE 61 (8 Nov. 2002) respectively.
75 11356/02 COR 1 ASILE 40 (9 Sept. 2002) new art 15(a).
76 ECRE ‘ECRE’s Recommendations to the Asylum Working Party on the Commission's Proposal for a Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection, COM(2001) 510 final: Article 15 — Complementary Forms of Protection' (13 Sept. 2002); see also Caritas Europa and others ‘Joint Comments on the Commission Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees, or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection COM (2001) 510 final’ (June 2002) <www.icmc.net/files/brussels08.en.pdf> (7 May 2004) 6.
77 9038/02 ASILE 25 (n31) 22 fn 3.
78 Protocol No 6 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, concerning the Abolition of the Death Penalty (adopted 28 Apr. 1983, entered into force 1 Mar. 1985) ETS No 114. This has since been strengthened by Protocol 13, prohibiting the death penalty in all circumstances: Protocol No 13 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, concerning the Abolition of the Death Penalty in All Circumstances (adopted 3 May 2002, entered into force 1 July 2003) ETS No 187.
79 Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Aiming at the Abolition of the Death Penalty (adopted by UNGA Res 44/128 of 15 Dec. 1989); Status of Ratifications as at 9 June 2004 <www.unhchr.ch/pdf/report.pdf> (10 June 2004).
80 Amnesty International (n40) 6.
83 European Parliament (n32) Amendment 54.
84 R Piotrowicz and C van Eck ‘Subsidiary Protection and Primary Rights’ (2004) 53 ICLQ 107, 123.
85 11356/02 ASILE 40 (n30); 12148/02 ASILE 43 (n51); removed 12382/02 ASILE 47 (30 Sept. 2002).
86 Soering v. UK (1989) 11 EHRR 439 [88].
88 In this context, note also the fact that in the international arena, there is no hierarchy of judicial institutions with a final body to resolve conflicts: ILC ‘Report of the Study Group on Fragmentation of International Law’ UN Doc A/CN.4/L.628 (1 Aug. 2002) [15].
89 Even though the ECHR is not directly applicable EC law, all EU Member States are also members of the Council of Europe and bound by the ECHR in that connection. Article 6(2) TEU (n3) further states: ‘The Union shall respect fundamental rights, as guaranteed by the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms signed in Rome on 4 Nov. 1950 and as they result from the constitutional traditions common to the Member States, as general principles of Community law requires Member States to use its principles as a basis in drawing up common legal acts.’ See also Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (n82).
90 UNHCR's Observations (n26) [42].
91 See exclusion clauses in Directive art 17.
92 UNHCR ‘Some Additional Observations’ (n71) 7.
93 11356/02 COR 1 ASILE 40 (n75); 12148/02 ASILE 43 (n51); 12534/02 ASILE 49 (7 Oct. 2002); 12619/02 ASILE 53 (9 Oct. 2002); 12620/02 ASILE 54 (n74); 13646/02 ASILE 60 (31 Oct. 2002).
94 See ECRE (n5); ELENA ‘Complementary/Subsidiary Forms of Protection in the EU States — An Overview’ (Apr. 1999).
95 UNHCR's Observations (n26) [4].
96 ECRE ‘Note from ECRE on the Harmonisation of the Interpretation of Article 1 of the 1951 Geneva Convention’ (June 1995) [15].
97 11356/02 COR 1 ASILE 40 (n75).
98 12148/02 ASILE 43 (n51); 12534/02 ASILE 49 (n93); 12619/02 ASILE 53 (n93); 12620/02 ASILE 54 (n74); 13646/02 ASILE 60 (n93).
99 12382/02 ASILE 47 (n85) 4 fn 3.
102 UNHCR ‘Note on Key Issues of Concern to UNHCR on the Draft Qualification Directive’ (Mar. 2004) 1.
103 Explanatory Memorandum (n18) 26–27.
104 E.g., UK Secretary of State's refusal of asylum on the basis of such violence, as recorded in the case of Vilvarajah v. UK (1991) 14 EHRR 248 [13]: ‘But it is noted that the incidents you have related were random and part of the army’s general activities directed at discovering and dealing with Tamil extremists and that they do not constitute evidence of persecution'; see also [25], [40], [52], [62].
105 Hathaway (n47) 91–92 (citations omitted).
106 Hathaway (n47) 97 (citations omitted).
107 Council Directive 2001/55/EC of 20 July 2001 on Minimum Standards for Giving Temporary Protection in the Event of a Mass Influx of Displaced Persons and on Measures Promoting a Balance of Efforts between Member States in Receiving Such Persons and Bearing the Consequences thereof [2001] OJ L212/12 art 2(c).
109 See Temporary Protection Directive (n107) art 2(a).
112 UNHCR ‘Guidelines on International Protection: Application of the Exclusion Clauses: Article 1F of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees’ UN Doc HCR/GIP/03/05 (4 Sept. 2003) [14].
114 In relation to ‘real risk’, ‘serious risk’ and ‘substantial risk’ in the context of the ECHR: R Alleweldt ‘Protection Against Expulsion Under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights’ (1993) 4 EJIL 360, 367.
115 UNHCR Tool Boxes on EU Asylum Matters: Tool Box 2: The Instruments (2003) 311.
116 See 12534/02 ASILE 49 (n93) 3 fn 3.
117 Piotrowicz and van Eck (n84) 114.
118 12382/02 ASILE 47 (n85) 4 fn 4.
121 Temporary Protection Directive (n107) art 2(c)(i).
122 Presidency Note to Council (JHA) 12619/01 ASILE 53 (9 Oct. 2002) Annex.
123 See Chair's suggested reformulation of the provision in 13646/02 ASILE 60 (n93).
125 13354/02 ASILE 55 (23 Oct. 2002) art 15(c) and 12620/02 ASILE 54 (n74) (references omitted).
126 Storey and others (n21) 15.
127 IIHL ‘14th Round Table on Current Problems of International Humanitarian Law’ (San Remo 12–16 Sept. 1989) 10 (Introduction by G Arnaout).
128 11356/02 COR 1 ASILE 40 (n75).
129 CM Recommendation R (2001) 18 (n2) [1].
130 Bouteillet-Paquet (n10) 231.
131 Amnesty International (n37) fn 5.
132 Denmark granted ex officio protection to people from Sierra Leone and Somalia: Refugee Appeal Board (30 Apr. 1991) (1990-21-1521; 1990-21-1645; 1990-21-1665; 1990-21-1666). France has granted similar protection to Haitians, Poles and Lebanese asylum-seekers.
133 Explanatory Memorandum (n18) 27.
134 Temporary Protection Directive (n107) art 5(1).
135 Informal JHA Council Meeting (n24) 3.
136 UNHCR ‘Some Additional Observations’ (n71) 7.
138 UNHCR ‘UNHCR and Human Rights’ (Policy Paper resulting from Deliberations in the Policy Committee on the Basis of a Paper Prepared by DIP, issued under AHC's Memorandum) AHC/97/325 (6 Aug. 1997).
139 UNHCR Global Consultations ‘Summary Conclusions: Exclusion from Refugee Status’ (Expert Roundtable, Lisbon 3–4 May 2001) [2], specifically in relation to art 1F.
140 Feller (n47) 4; UNHCR ‘Some Additional Observations’ (n71) 6.
141 Rome Statute art 5(1). The court shall exercise jurisdiction over the crime of aggression once a provision is adopted in accordance with arts 121 and 123: art 5(2).
142 For problems related to this: D Perluss and JF Hartman ‘Temporary Refuge: Emergence of a Customary Norm’ (1986) 26 VJIL 551, 573.
143 Rodríguez v. Honduras (29 July 1988) Inter-American Court of Human Rights Series C No 4.
144 Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons (CP) ‘Summary Record of the 19th Meeting’ (13 July 1951) UN Doc A/CONF.2/SR.19 (26 Nov. 1951) 26 (Federal Republic of Germany); see CP ‘Draft Convention relating to the Status of Refugees: Federal Republic of Germany: Amendment to Article 1’ UN Doc A/CONF.2/76 (13 July 1951).
145 Note that the Rome Statute also defines ‘persecution’. The definition there, although requiring intent, may encompass a wider scope: ‘the intentional and severe deprivation of fundamental rights contrary to international law by reason of the identity of the group or collectivity’: art 7(2)(g). The Convention ground element is represented by the broader notion of group identity, rather than exhaustively enumerated as in art 1A(2), while the concept of ‘persecution’ is explained as the ‘severe deprivation of fundamental rights’.
146 HRC ‘General Comment 6: The Right to Life’ (30 Apr. 1982).
147 S Taylor ‘Australia's Implementation of Its Non-Refoulement Obligations under the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights’ (1994) 17 UNSW LJ 432, 447.
148 Explanatory Memorandum (n18) 26. See also CM Recommendation R (2001) 18 (n2) [1], which recommends subsidiary protection ‘for other reasons recognised by the legislation or practice of the member state’.
149 Loizidou v. Turkey (1995) 20 EHRR 90 [62].
150 11356/02 COR 1 ASILE 40 (n75) new art 15.
151 12199/02 ASILE 45 (n30) art 15.
152 12148/02 ASILE 43 (n51) 7.
153 Amnesty International (n40) 7.
155 E.g., Beljoudi v. France (1992) 14 EHRR 801.
156 12148/02 ASILE 43 (n51) 7.
157 Deleted by 12620/02 ASILE 54 (n74).
158 J Vedsted-Hansen ‘Assessment of the Proposal for an EC Directive on the Notion of Refugee and Subsidiary Protection from the Perspective of International Law’ in Bouteillet-Paquet (ed) (n10) 76.
160 It should be noted, however, that the Commission has been mandated to present a proposal on the right to long-term residence status for beneficiaries of subsidiary protection, excluded from the Council Directive 2003/109/EC of 25 Nov. 2003 concerning the Status of Third-Country Nationals Who Are Long-Term Residents [2004] OJ L16/44. It is considering dealing with this issue within the Qualification Directive, due to perceived advantages in the political process (co-decision between the European Parliament and the Council, rather than the Council alone, and by Qualified Majority Voting in the Council, rather than unanimity). Accordingly, should the Commission present a new proposal for a Qualification Directive, incorporating long-term residence provisions, then nothing prevents the reform of other provisions as well.
162 13648/02 ASILE 61 (n74) 26 fn 1.
163 Directive arts 12(2)(a), 17(1)(a).
164 Directive arts 12(2)(c), 17(1)(c).
166 This element was reinserted into the refugee exclusion clause: Directive art 12(2)(b).
167 G Gilbert ‘Current Issues in the Application of the Exclusion Clauses’ in E Feller, V Türk and F Nicholson (eds) Refugee Protection in International Law: UNHCR's Global Consultations on International Protection (CUP Cambridge 2003) 439.
168 N Keijzer ‘The Political Offence Exception in Extradition Law’ in PJ van Krieken (ed) Refugee Law in Context: The Exclusion Clause (TMC Asser Press The Hague 1999) 163.
169 G S Goodwin-Gill The Refugee in International Law (2nd edn OUP Oxford 1996) 65, 105.
170 See predominance test developed by the Federal Court of Switzerland in Ktir v. Ministère Public Fédéral (1961) 34 ILR 143 and discussed in Keijzer (n. 168) 164–65.
171 UNHCR Handbook (n47) [152]; ECRE ‘Position on Exclusion’ (Mar. 2004) [22].
172 UNHCR Handbook (n47) [155].
173 The Directive would be contrary to international law if it sought to limit the application of the Convention in this respect.
174 Directive art 17(1)(d), inserted by 12620/02 ASILE 54 (n74).
175 12620/02 ASILE 54 (n74) 19 fn 2; See also the view of the UK government in House of Commons (n70) [6.22]; Feller (n47) 5; Presidency Note to Strategic Committee on Immigration, Frontiers and Asylum on 5–6 Nov. 2002 13623/02 ASILE 59 (30 Oct. 2002) 3.
177 Pro Asyl ‘Council for Justice and Home Affairs in Brussels: Common EU Asylum System in Danger of Falling through because of Germany: Appeal to Chancellor Schroeder and Foreign Minister Fischer to Withdraw the German Reservations’ (8 May 2003) <www.proasyl.de/presse03/mai08.htm> (6 Sept. 2003). On Germany's insistence: Third UNHCR Working Group on EU Asylum and Migration Harmonization ‘Summary of the Most Important Points of the Proposal for Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection and the Content of the Protection Granted’ (21 May 2003) <www.unhcr.bg/events_records/2003/3unhcr_wg.pdf> (24 Mar. 2004).
178 Refugee Council (UK) ‘International Protection Project Update’ (Sept. 2003) 2.
179 Refugee Council (UK) ‘Refugee Council Briefing on the Common European Asylum System’ (Mar. 2004) <www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/downloads/briefings/intl/common_euro.pdf> (13 Apr. 2003) 13.
180 UNHCR's Observations (n26) [46]; UNHCR ‘Note on Key Issues’ (n102) 2.
181 E.g., Amnesty International Irish Section ‘The Case for Complementary Protection’ (Jan. 2003) <www.amnesty.ie/act/refug/protection.shtml> (6 Sept. 2003); Refugee Council (UK) ‘Refugee Council’s Response to the Home Office Consultation on Changes to the Policy of Issuing of Certificates of Identity' (Feb. 2003) <www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/downloads/policy_briefings/cid_traveldocs.pdf> (12 Apr. 2004).
182 ‘Explanatory Memorandum Submitted by the Home Office on Proposal for a Council Directive on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection (2001/0207 (CNS))’ in Minutes of Evidence Taken before the EU Committee (Sub-Committee E) [22], in House of Lords (n40) Oral Evidence 63.
183 Refugee Council (n179) 12.
184 House of Lords (n40) 27 [111].
185 UNHCR ‘Some Additional Observations’ (n71) 8.
186 Goodwin-Gill and Hurwitz (n68) [19].
187 European Parliament (n32) 54.
189 Formerly art 21. For a recent, comprehensive examination of the law in this area: K Jastram and K Newland ‘Family Unity and Refugee Protection’ in Feller, Türk and Nicholson (eds) (n167) 555.
190 Inserted by 10596/02 ASILE 36 (n30).
191 They could only obtain Directive-based protection if they made successful independent claims for protection. See Amnesty's criticism of this: Amnesty International (n40).
193 7882/02 ASILE 20 (n31); 9038/02 ASILE 25 (n31); see reservations in 10596/02 ASILE 36 (n30).
198 Contrast original art 2(j) to present art 2(h).
199 Inserted by 10576/03 ASILE 40 (19 June 2003).
200 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (24 Feb. 2003); 10576/03 ASILE 40 (n199).
201 Council Directive 2003/9/EC of 27 Jan. 2003 laying down Minimum Standards for the Reception of Asylum Seekers [2003] OJ L31/18, as cited in 8919/03 ASILE 29 (12 May 2003).
202 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200).
205 7882/02 ASILE 20 (n31), 9038/02 ASILE 25 (n31), 10596/02 ASILE 36 (n30).
206 It implicitly creates yet another category — persons who are not eligible for protection under the Directive but whom States cannot remove due to their international obligations. Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 Sept. 2003 on the Right to Family Reunification [2003] OJ L251/12 expressly excludes family members of beneficiaries of subsidiary or temporary protection: art 3(2).
207 UNHCR ‘Some Additional Observations’ (n71) 3.
208 ECRE ‘Information Note on the Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 Apr. 2004 on Minimum Standards for the Qualification of Third Country Nationals and Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons Who Otherwise Need International Protection and the Content of the Protection Granted’ (Oct. 2004) IN1/10/2004/ext/CN.
210 See 12199/02 ASILE 45 (n30), wording deleted 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200).
211 European Parliament (n32) Amendment 66.
212 15627/02 ASILE 82 (19 Dec. 2002).
213 Inserted by 10576/03 ASILE 40 (n199). Several delegations, including Finland, opposed referring to family members in the same terms as the primary applicant: e.g., 9945/03 ADD 1 ASILE 32 (28 May 2003).
214 Deleted by 10576/03 ASILE 40 (n199).
215 Inserted into art 24(1) by 8919/03 ASILE 29 (n201); inserted into art 24(2) by 15627/02 ASILE 82 (n212).
216 For examples of human rights-based protections: Hathaway (n47) 105–17.
217 For UK proposal: AHC ‘United Kingdom: Amendments to Draft Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (E/1618)’ E/AC.32/L.41 (15 Aug. 1950). For debate: AHC ‘Summary Record of the 35th Meeting’ (Geneva 15 Aug. 1950) E/AC.32/SR.35 (25 Sept. 1950) 7–11; CP ‘Summary Record of the 28th Meeting’ (Geneva 19 July 1951) A/CONF.2/SR.28 (28 Nov. 1951) 4–10.
218 House of Commons Select Committee on European Scrutiny Twenty-Second Report of Session 2002–03 (The Stationery Office London 13 June 2003) <www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmselect/cmeuleg/63-xxii/63-xxii.pdf> (25 Feb. 2004) [14.5].
221 UNHCR ‘Note on Key Issues’ (n102) 2.
222 On this point: J-Y Carlier and D Vanheule (eds) Europe and Refugees: A Challenge? (Kluwer Law International The Hague 1997) 697; Goodwin-Gill (n169) 369.
224 Explanatory Memorandum (n18) 30.
225 Goodwin-Gill (n169) 82–83.
226 Inserted by 5224/03 ASILE 2 (14 Jan. 2003).
227 ICCPR arts 12(2) and (3); Protocol No 4 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Securing Certain Rights and Freedoms Other Than Those Already Included in the Convention and in the First Protocol thereto (adopted 16 Sept. 1963, entered into force 2 May 1968) ETS No 46 arts 2(2) and (3).
228 GS Goodwin-Gill International Law and the Movement of Persons between States (Clarendon Press Oxford 1978) 24–25.
230 AHC ‘Summary Record of the 16th Meeting’ (30 Jan. 1950) E/AC.32/SR.16 (8 Feb. 1950) [9].
232 Memorandum by Statewatch (8 Mar. 2001 [sic 2002]) [9] in House of Lords (n40) Oral Evidence 46. Nicholas Blake also noted that France used to recognize the UK's temporary protection documents, but as at May 2002, had stopped doing so: Oral Evidence of N Blake [200] in House of Lords (n40) Oral Evidence 59.
233 Oral Evidence of GS Goodwin-Gill [62] in House of Lords (n40) Oral Evidence 10.
237 The European Parliament pressed for this change: European Parliament (n32) Amendment 69. It noted that: ‘Employment restrictions upon status determination seriously hinder refugee integration in the long term as they risk pushing people into illegal work or encouraging dependency on public assistance.’
238 Original arts 24(1) and (3).
239 Directive arts 26(1) and (3).
241 6275/03 ADD 1 ASILE 9 (13 Feb. 2003).
243 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200) 26 fn 4; 9945/03 ADD 1 ASILE 32 (n213) 26 fn 2; 8858/03 ADD 1, 26 fn 3.
244 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200) 26 fn 2.
246 7728/04 ASILE 18 (24 Mar. 2004).
247 7469/04 ASILE 15 (17 Mar. 2004).
248 Reference to Reception Conditions Directive (n201); see Chair's comments in 9945/03 ADD 1 ASILE 32 (n213) 26 fn 2.
249 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200); 10576/03 ASILE 40 (n199).
250 House of Commons (n218) [14.7].
251 7482/04 ASILE 16 (22 Mar. 2004).
254 Ultimately, the bulk of Germany's amendments were adopted. See 7482/04 ASILE 16 (n251).
255 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200).
256 9945/03 ADD 1 ASILE 32 (n213)
257 Reception Conditions Directive (n201).
258 7469/04 ASILE 15 (n247). Formerly arts 21, 22, 24, 26, 27 and 31.
262 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200) 29 fn 2.
263 Reception Conditions Directive (n201).
265 Inserted by 7482/04 ASILE 16 (n251).
266 7728/04 ASILE 18 (n246) then art 27.
268 6275/03 ADD 1 ASILE 9 (n241).
270 European Parliament (n32) Amendment 82.
271 9945/03 ADD 1 ASILE 32 (n213).
273 6566/03 ADD 1 ASILE 10 (n200); German proposal 7469/04 ASILE 15 (n247).
275 Inserted by 7482/04 ASILE 16 (n251).
277 As early as 1975, it was recognized that ‘de facto refugees’ faced the same integration issues as Convention refugees: PA Report on the Situation of De Facto Refugees (5 Aug. 1975) Doc 3642 ‘Explanatory Memorandum’ [15], [17].
279 See J McAdam ‘The European Union Proposal on Subsidiary Protection: An Analysis and Assessment’ UNHCR New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper No 74 (Geneva Dec. 2002) 3; Goodwin-Gill and Hurwitz (n68) [20].
280 European Parliament (n32) Amendment 18.
282 Contribution of the Legal Service to Asylum Working Party 14348/02 JUR 449 ASILE 67 (15 Nov. 2002).
283 ibid [7] (then arts 9, 9A, 11, 13, 14, 14A, 15, 16, 17(1) and (2)).
284 See arts 4(1), 8, 14(1), 14(4), 14(5), 19(1), 20(6), 20(7), 21(2) and 21(3).
285 Contribution of the Legal Service (n282) [8].